Cellular System Components

Introduction to GSM Networks Figure 1. 1 is a schematic overview of the main components in a GSM network. The various interface labels are the formal names given to these interfaces. More details about these interfaces are found in GSM TS 03. 02 [26]. The GSM network consists mainly of the following functional parts: †¢ MSC – the mobile service switching centre (MSC) is the core switching entity in the network. The MSC is connected to the radio access network (RAN); the RAN is formed by the BSCs and BTSs within the Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN).Users of the GSM network are registered with an MSC; all calls to and from the user are controlled by the MSC. A GSM network has one or more MSCs, geographically distributed. †¢ VLR – the visitor location register (VLR) contains subscriber data for subscribers registered in an MSC. Every MSC contains a VLR. Although MSC and VLR are individually addressable, they are always contained in one integrated node. †¢ G MSC – the gateway MSC (GMSC) is the switching entity that controls mobile terminating calls.When a call is established towards a GSM subscriber, a GMSC contacts the HLR of that subscriber, to obtain the address of the MSC where that subscriber is currently registered. That MSC address is used to route the call to that subscriber. †¢ HLR – the home location register (HLR) is the database that contains a subscription record for each subscriber of the network. A GSM subscriber is normally associated with one particular HLR. The HLR is responsible for the sending of subscription data to the VLR (during registration) or GMSC (during mobile terminating call handling). CN – the core network (CN) consists of, amongst other things, MSC(s), GMSC(s) and HLR(s). These entities are the main components for call handling and subscriber management. Other main entities in the CN are the equipment identi? cation register (EIR) and authentication centre (AUC). CAMEL has no in teraction with the EIR and AUC; hence EIR and AUC are not further discussed. †¢ BSS – the base station system (BSS) is composed of one or more base station controllers (BSC) and one or more base transceiver stations (BTS). The BTS contains one or more transceivers (TRX).The TRX is responsible for radio signal transmission and reception. BTS and BSC are connected through the Abis interface. The BSS is connected to the MSC through the A interface. †¢ MS – the mobile station (MS) is the GSM handset. The structure of the MS will be described in more detail in a next section. A GSM network is a public land mobile network (PLMN). Other types of PLMN are the time division multiple access (TDMA) network or code division multiple access (CDMA) network. GSM uses the following sub-division of the PLMN: CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network ? 006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Rogier Noldus 2 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network To HLR from other PLMN D HLR D C Core network To/from other network MSC ISUP E MSC A BSC Abis BTS Um Um A ISUP GMSC ISUP BSC Abis BTS Um Um Base station system Air interface MS MS MS MS Figure 1. 1 GSM network architecture †¢ Home PLMN (HPLMN) – the HPLMN is the GSM network that a GSM user is a subscriber of. That implies that GSM user’s subscription data resides in the HLR in that PLMN. The HLR may transfer the subscription data to a VLR (during registration in a PLMN) or a GMSC (during mobile terminating call handling).The HPLMN may also contain various service nodes, such as a short message service centre (SMSC), service control point (SCP), etc. †¢ Visited PLMN (VPLMN) – the VPLMN is the GSM network where a subscriber is currently registered. The subscriber may be registered in her HPLMN or in another PLMN. In the latter case, the subscriber is outbound roaming (from HPLMN’s perspective) and inbound roaming (from VPLMN’s perspective) . When the subscriber is currently registered in her HPLMN, then the HPLMN is at the same time VPLMN. 1 †¢ Interrogating PLMN (IPLMN) – the IPLMN is the PLMN containing the GMSC that handles mobile terminating (MT) calls.MT calls are always handled by a GMSC in the PLMN, regardless of the origin of the call. For most operators, MT call handling is done by a GMSC in the HPLMN; in that case, the HPLMN is at the same time IPLMN. This implies that calls destined for a GSM subscriber are always routed to the HPLMN of that GSM subscriber. Once the call has arrived in the HPLMN, the HPLMN acts as IPLMN. MT call handling will be described in more detail in subsequent sections. When basic optimal routing (BOR) is applied, the IPLMN is not the same PLMN as the HPLMN.The user of a GSM network is referred to as the served subscriber ; the MSC that is serving that subscriber is known as the serving MSC. Examples are: †¢ mobile originated call – the MSC that is handling th e call is the serving MSC for this call; the calling subscriber is the served subscriber; †¢ mobile terminated call – the GMSC that is handling the call is the serving GMSC for this call; the called subscriber is the served subscriber. 1 The CAMEL service requirement, GSM TS 02. 78 [12] uses this strict de? nition. The term VPLMN is, however, commonly used to denote any network other than the HPLMN.Introduction to GSM Networks 3 1. 1 Signalling in GSM The various entities in the GSM network are connected to one another through signalling networks. Signalling is used for example, for subscriber mobility, subscriber registration, call establishment, etc. The connections to the various entities are known as ‘reference points’. Examples include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ A interface – the connection between MSC and BSC; Abis interface – the connection between BSC and BTS; D interface – the connection between MSC and HLR; Um interface à ¢â‚¬â€œ the radio connection between MS and BTS. Various signalling protocols are used over the reference points.Some of these protocols for GSM are the following: †¢ mobile application part (MAP) – MAP is used for call control, subscriber registration, short message service, etc. ; MAP is used over many of the GSM network interfaces; †¢ base station system application part (BSSAP) – BSSAP is used over the A interface; †¢ direct transfer application part (DTAP) – DTAP is used between MS and MSC; DTAP is carried over the Abis and the A interface. DTAP is speci? ed in GSM TS 04. 08 [49]; †¢ ISDN user part (ISUP) – ISUP is the protocol for establishing and releasing circuit switched calls.ISUP is also used in landline Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). A circuit is the data channel that is established between two users in the network. Within ISDN, the data channel is generally a 64 kbit/s channel. The circuit is used for the tran sfer of the encoded speech or other data. ISUP is speci? ed in ITU-T Q. 763 [137]. When it comes to call establishment, GSM makes a distinction between signalling and payload. Signalling refers to the exchange of information for call set up; payload refers to the data that is transferred within a call, i. e. voice, video, fax etc.For a mobile terminated GSM call, the signalling consists of exchange of MAP messages between GMSC, HLR and visited MSC (VMSC). The payload is transferred by the ISUP connection between GMSC and VMSC. It is a continual aim to optimize the payload transfer through the network, as payload transfer has a direct cost aspect associated with it. Some network services are designed to optimize the payload transfer. One example is optimal routing. 1. 2 GSM Mobility Roaming with GSM is made possible through the separation of switching capability and subscription data.A GSM subscriber has her subscription data, including CAMEL data, permanently registered in the HLR i n her HPLMN. The GSM operator is responsible for provisioning this data in the HLR. The MSC and GMSC in a PLMN, on the other hand, are not speci? c for one subscriber group. The switching capability of the MSC in a PLMN may be used by that PLMN’s own subscribers, but also by inbound roaming subscribers; see Figure 1. 2. In Figure 1. 2, the GSM user who is a subscriber of PLMN-A roams to PLMN-B. The HLR in PLMN-A transfers the user’s subscription data to the MSC in PLMN-B.The subscriber’s subscription data remains in the MSC/VLR as long as she is served by a BSS that is connected to that MSC. Even when the user switches her MS off and then on again, the subscription data remains in the MSC. After an extended period of the MS being switched off, the subscription data will be purged from the MSC. When the subscriber switches her MS on again, the subscriber has to re-register with the MSC, which entails the MSC asking the HLR in the HPLMN to re-send the subscription data for that subscriber. 4 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS NetworkTransfer of subscription data to MSC/VLR HLR PLMN-A MSC MS Subscriber roams to other PLMN PLMN-B MSC Figure 1. 2 Transfer of GSM subscription data for a roaming subscriber When the subscriber moves from one MSC service area (MSC-1) to another MSC service area (MSC-2), the HLR will instruct MSC-1 to purge the subscription data of this subscriber and will send the subscription data to MSC-2. 1. 3 Mobile Station The MS, i. e. the GSM handset, is logically built up from the following components: †¢ mobile equipment (ME) – this is the GSM terminal, excluding the SIM card; †¢ subscriber identi? ation module (SIM) – this is the chip embedded in the SIM card that identi? es a subscriber of a GSM network; the SIM is embedded in the SIM card. When the SIM card is inserted in the ME, the subscriber may register with a GSM network. The ME is now effectively personalized for this GS M subscriber; see Figure 1. 3. The characteristics of the SIM are speci? ed in GSM TS 11. 11. The SIM card contains information such as IMSI, advice of charge parameters, operator-speci? c emergency number, etc. For the UMTS network an enhanced SIM is speci? ed, the universal subscriber identity module (USIM); refer 3GPP TS 31. 02. 1. 4 Identi? ers in the GSM Network GSM uses several identi? ers for the routing of calls, identifying subscribers (e. g. for charging), locating the HLR, identifying equipment, etc. Some of these identi? ers play an important role for CAMEL. 1. 4. 1 International Mobile Subscriber Identity The international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) is embedded on the SIM card and is used to identify a subscriber. The IMSI is also contained in the subscription data in the HLR. The IMSI is used for identifying a subscriber for various processes in the GSM network. Some of these are: KPN SIM + ME = MSFigure 1. 3 Components of the mobile station Introduction to GSM Networks 5 3 digits MCC Maximum 15 digits 2 or 3 digits MNC MSIN Figure 1. 4 Structure of the IMSI †¢ location update – when attaching to a network, the MS reports the IMSI to the MSC, which uses the IMSI to derive the global title (GT) of the HLR associated with the subscriber; †¢ terminating call – when the GSM network handles a call to a GSM subscriber, the HLR uses the IMSI to identify the subscriber in the MSC/VLR, to start a process for delivering the call to that subscriber in that MSC/VLR. †¢ roaming charging – a VPLMN uses the IMSI o send billing records to the HPLMN of a subscriber. Figure 1. 4 shows the format of the IMSI. †¢ mobile country code (MCC) – the MCC identi? es the country for mobile networks. The MCC is not used for call establishment. The usage of MCC is de? ned in ITU-T E. 212 [129]. The MCC values are allocated and published by the ITU-T. †¢ mobile network code (MNC) – the MNC identi? es the mobile network within a mobile country (as identi? ed by MCC). MCC and MNC together identify a PLMN. Refer to ITU-T E. 212 [129] for MNC usage. The MNC may be two or three digits in length. Common practice is that, within a country (as identi? d by MCC), all MNCs are either two or three digits. †¢ mobile subscriber identi? cation number (MSIN) – the MSIN is the subscriber identi? er within a PLMN. The IMSI is reported to the SCP during CAMEL service invocation. The IMSI may be needed, for example, when identifying a country; countries in North America have equal country code (country code = 1), but different MCC (e. g. Canada = 303; Mexico = 334). 1. 4. 2 Mobile Station Integrated Services Digital Network Number (MSISDN Number) The MSISDN is used to identify the subscriber when, among other things, establishing a call to that subscriber or sending an SMS to that subscriber.Hence, the MSISDN is used for routing purposes. Figure 1. 5 shows the structure of the MSISDN. †¢ co untry code (CC) – the CC identi? es the country or group of countries of the subscriber; †¢ national destination code (NDC) – each PLMN in a country has one or more NDCs allocated to it; the NDC may be used to route a call to the appropriate network; †¢ subscriber number (SN) – the SN identi? es the subscriber within the number plan of a PLMN. CC NDC SN 1, 2 or 3 digits Maximum 15 digits Figure 1. 5 Structure of the MSISDN 6 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network IMEITAC 6 digits FAC 2 digits FAC 2 digits SNR 6 digits SNR 6 digits spare 1 digit IMEISV TAC 6 digits SV 2 digits Figure 1. 6 Structure of IMEI and IMEISV The MSISDN is not stored on the subscriber’s SIM card and is normally not available in the MS. 2 The MSISDN is provisioned in the HLR, as part of the subscriber’s pro? le, and is sent to MSC during registration. The MSISDN is also reported to SCP when a CAMEL service is invoked. One subscriber may have multiple MSISDNs. These MSISDNs are provisioned in the HLR. At any one moment, only a single MSISDN is available in the MSC/VLR for the subscriber. . 4. 3 International Mobile Equipment Identi? er The international mobile equipment identi? er (IMEI) is used to identify the ME [or user equipment (UE) in UMTS network]. Each ME has a unique IMEI. The IMEI is hard-coded in the ME and cannot be modi? ed. Figure 1. 6 shows the structure of the IMEI. The IMEI is not used for routing or subscriber identi? cation. Refer to GSM TS 03. 03 [27] for the type approval code (TAC), ? nal assembly code (FAC) and serial number (SNR). The software version (SV) may be included in the IMEI (‘IMEISV’) to indicate the version of software embedded in the ME.The IMEI is always encoded as an eight-octet string. As from CAMEL Phase 4, the IMEI(SV) may be reported to the SCP. 1. 4. 4 Mobile Station Roaming Number The mobile station roaming number (MSRN) is used in the GSM network for routing a cal l to a MS. The need for the MSRN stems from the fact that the MSISDN identi? es a subscriber, but not the current location of that subscriber in a telecommunications network. The MSRN is allocated to a subscriber during MT call handling and is released when the call to that subscriber is established. Each MSC in a PLMN has a (limited) range of MSRNs allocated to it.An MSRN may be allocated to any subscriber registered in that MSC. The MSRN has the form of an E. 164 number and can be used by the GMSC for establishing a call to a GSM subscriber. An MSRN is part of a GSM operator’s number plan. The MSRN indicates the GSM network a subscriber is registered in, but not the GSM network the subscriber belongs to. Figure 1. 7 shows how the MSRN is used for call routing. The MSRN is not meant for call initiation. GSM operators may con? gure their MSC such that subscribers cannot dial numbers that fall within the MSRN range of that operator. 1. 5 Basic ServicesAll activities that may b e done in the GSM network, such as establishing a voice call, establishing a data call, sending a short message, etc. , are classi? ed as basic services. In order for a subscriber to use a GSM basic service, she must have a subscription to that service. 3 The handling of a basic 2 GSM subscribers may program their MSISDN into the phone; this has, however, no signi? cance for the network. 3 Exceptions are Tele Service 12 (emergency call establishment) and Tele Service 23 (Cell Broadcast). Subscribers do not need a subscription to these Tele Services to use them.Introduction to GSM Networks 7 return MSRN request MSRN HLR VMSC MSRN GMSC incoming call MSISDN Figure 1. 7 Usage of MSRN during call establishment to a GSM subscriber service is fully standardized. Hence, a subscriber may use a basic service in any GSM network she roams to, provided that that basic service is supported in that network. The HLR will send a list of subscribed basic services to the MSC/VLR, during registration. When a GSM subscriber initiates a call, the MS supplies the serving MSC with a set of parameters describing the circuitswitched connection that is requested.These parameters are the bearer capability (BC), low-layer compatibility (LLC) and high-layer compatibility (HLC), as will be described below. The MSC uses the BC, LLC and HLC to derive the basic service for this call. The rules for deriving the basic service from LLC, HLC and BC are speci? ed in GSM TS 09. 07 [55]. The MSC then checks whether the subscriber has a subscription to the requested basic service, i. e. whether the subscription data in the VLR contains that basic service. If the service is not subscribed to, then the MSC disallows the call. The basic service is not transported over ISUP.When a CAMEL service is invoked, the MSC reports the requested basic service to the SCP. The SCP may use the indication of the requested basic service for call service processing. Examples include: †¢ video calls may be charged at a higher rate than speech calls; †¢ for data calls and fax calls, the CAMEL service shall not play any announcements or tones. Basic services are divided into two groups: tele services and bearer services. 1. 5. 1 Tele Services Table 1. 1 provides an overview of the available tele services (TS); see also GSM TS 02. 03 [3]. 1. 5. 2 Bearer Services Table 1. provides an overview of the available bearer services (BS). The two bearer service groups are sub-divided into a variety of bearer services with different characteristics. Refer to GSM TS 02. 02 [2]. 1. 5. 3 Circuit Bearer Description Bearer capability, low-layer compatibility and high-layer compatibility are descriptors of a circuitswitched (CS) connection. When a GSM subscriber initiates a call, the BC, LLC and HLC are transported from MS to MSC over DTAP. The MSC includes the parameters in the ISUP signal to the destination. These parameters are also reported to the SCP during CAMEL service invocation.That enables a CAMEL service to adapt the service logic processing to the type of call. Figure 1. 8 shows the relation between LLC, HLC and BC on the DTAP and the corresponding parameters on ISUP. 8 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network Table 1. 1 Tele service 11 12 Tele services Description Telephony Emergency calls Comment This TS represents the normal speech call The emergency call uses the characteristics of telephony (TS11), but may be established without subscription and bypasses various checks in the MS and in the MSC This TS relates to receiving an SMS.This TS is not sent to the MSC/VLR. When an SMS is sent to the subscriber, the HLR checks whether the destination subscriber has a subscription to TS 21 This TS relates to the sending of an SMS This TS relates to the capability of an SMS that is sent as a broadcast SMS This TS relates to the capability to establish a speech and fax (group 3) call This TS relates to the capability to establish a fax (group 3) call This TS r elates to the capability to participate in a group call as speci? ed in GSM TS 03. 8 [35] This TS relates to the capability to receive a voice broadcast as speci? ed in GSM TS 03. 68 [35] 21 Short message MT 22 23 61 62 91 92 Short message MO Cell broadcast Alternate speech and fax group 3 Automatic fax group 3 Voice group call Voice broadcast Table 1. 2 Tele service 20 30 Bearer services Description Asynchronous data bearer services Synchronous data bearer services Comment May be used for asynchronous services from 300 bit/s to 64 kbit/s. May be used for synchronous services from 1. 2 to 64 kbit/s.This BS may be used, amongst other things, for multimedia services such as video telephony. 4 DTAP (GSM TS 04. 08) Low layer compatibility High layer compatibility Bearer capability MSC ISUP (ITU-T Q. 763) Access transport [low layer compatibility] User teleservice information User service information Figure 1. 8 Transfer of LLC, HLC and BC through DTAP and ISUP †¢ Low-layer compatib ility – the LLC is transported transparently between the calling entity and called entity; it may be used by the respective entities to adapt codecs for interworking purposes.LLC describes mainly characteristics related to the data transfer. 4 3GPP Rel-7 may include a dedicated bearer service for video telephony. Introduction to GSM Networks 9 †¢ High-layer compatibility – the HLC is also transported transparently between the calling entity and called entity; it is used to describe the requested service, such as telephony, Fax, video telephony, etc. †¢ Bearer capability – the BC describes the characteristics of the 64 kbit/s circuit requested for the call. 1. 6 Supplementary ServicesSupplementary services (SS) in GSM are a means of enriching the user experience. An SS may, for example, forward a call in the case of no reply from the called party, bar certain outgoing or incoming calls, show the number of the calling party to the called party, etc. In o rder to use an SS, a GSM user needs a subscription to that SS. The subscription to supplementary services is contained in the HLR and is sent to the MSC/VLR during registration. The supplementary services are fully standardized.A GSM subscriber can therefore use her supplementary services in any GSM network, provided that the network supports these supplementary services, and have the same user experience. Table 1. 3 SS group Line identi? cation GSM supplementary services Supplementary services Calling line identi? cation presentation (CLIP) Calling line identi? cation restriction (CLIR) Connected line presentation (COLP) Connected line restriction (COLR) Calling name presentation (CNAP) Call forwarding – unconditional (CFU) Call forwarding – busy (CFB) Call forwarding – no reply (CFNRY) Call forwarding – not reachable (CFNRC) Call de? ction (CD) Explicit call transfer (ECT) Call waiting (CW) Call hold (CH) Call completion to busy subscriber (CCBS) Multi- call (MC) Multi-party call (MPTY) Closed user group (CUG) Advice of charge – information (AOCI)Advice of charge – charge (AOCC) User-to-user signalling – service 1 (UUS1) User-to-user signalling – service 2 (UUS2) User-to-user signalling – service 3 (UUS3) Barring of all outgoing calls (BAOC) Barring of outgoing international calls (BOIC) Barring of outgoing international calls except to the home country (BOIC-exHc) Barring of all ncoming calls (BAIC) Barring of all incoming calls when roaming (BICROAM) enhanced multi-level precedence and pre-emption (eMLPP) GSM TS 02. 81 [13] Name identi? cation Call forwarding 02. 96 [24] 02. 82 [14], Call offering Call completion 02. 72 [11] 02. 91 [22] 02. 83 [15], 02. 93 [23], 22. 135 [69]a 02. 84 [16] 02. 85 [17] 02. 86 [18] 02. 87 [19] Multi-party Community of interest Charging Additional information transfer Call barring 02. 88 [20] Call priority 2. 67 [10] a For the multi-call service, there is no GSM TS a vailable, but only a 3GPP TS (22. 135). 10 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network Supplementary services may be provisioned for an individual basic service or for a group of basic services, e. g. a subscriber may have barring of all outgoing calls for all tele services and all bearer services, except SMS (tele service group 20). Such a subscriber is barred from establishing utgoing calls (except emergency calls), but may still send short messages.Some supplementary services may be activated or deactivated by the user. Examples include call forwarding and call barring. An operator may decide to bar certain subscribers or subscriber groups from modifying their supplementary services. Table 1. 3 shows the Supplementary Services. They are combined in service groups. Subscriptions are per individual Supplementary Service. The right-most column indicates the GSM technical speci? ations (TS) that specify the service requirement for the respective Supplementary Servi ce(s). The chapters on CAMEL Phases 1–4 describe the interaction between CAMEL and the various supplementary services. Not all GSM networks support all supplementary services. Many of the supplementary services in GSM have equivalent supplementary services in ISDN. The ISDN supplementary services are described in ITU-T recommendations. GSM TS 02. 03 [3] describes how the supplementary services may be activated, deactivated and invoked.

Ethical Analysis of Baby Theresa Essay

Baby Theresa is a very unique case. Theresa Ann Campo Pearson was an infant born in Florida 1992, with Anencephaly, which is where the two most important parts of the brain are missing, the cerebrum and cerebellum, as well as the top of the skull. Without these parts of the brain she would never have had higher brain functions or consciousness. However, there is still a brain stem connected so all the autonomic functions are still working, such as having a heart beat and breathing. Anencephaly is known as one of the worst congenital disorders, thus these cases are usually detected during pregnancy and aborted. If not aborted, half are stillborn or if born alive, they usually die within a few days. In Baby Theresa’s case, she died nine days after birth. Even though, knowing that Baby Theresa would not live long and never have a conscious life, her parents requested that her organs would not go to waste, but instead be donated for transplants for other infants in need before Theresa’s natural death. In fact, even physicians agreed that was a good idea because over 2000 infants need transplants each year. Unfortunately, the state of Florida prohibits euthanasia and that the organs only be removed when natural death occurs. Eventually, within the nine days Baby Theresa organs decayed and were not used because the Circuit Court Judge Estella Moriarty ruled that a Florida statute does not allow a person to be declared dead while any part of the brain is functioning. The judge told the parents: â€Å"I can’t authorize someone to take your baby’s life, however short, however unsatisfying, to save another child. † Which brings me to my first ethical argument, â€Å"It’s wrong to kill†. According to Immanuel Kant and his Kantian deontological theory, the principle of morality and our perfect duties, which one happens to be â€Å"it’s wrong to kill an innocent person†, comes from the categorical imperative. Kant states in the text on page 18 that, â€Å"act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end. † This is basically saying you always respect another person’s dignity. Thus, from a  Kantian standpoint, it is wrong to kill Theresa and take her organs to save others because then they would be using her merely as a means to other infants’ ends. However, to play devils advocate, â€Å"using a person† typically means you are violating their autonomy- their right to live and decide for themselves according to their own desires and values. With that being said, Baby Theresa was not autonomous because she had no consciousness, she had no ability to ever decide what was in her best interest and desire. So, technically, the Judge of the circuit court was not respecting the parents’ dignity of wanting to donate Theresa’s organs. For that reason, D. W Ross’s theory should have been taken into consideration. Indeed, I understand why the judge decided to make the ruling she did because if she did allow the physicians to take Theresa’s life before natural death took its course, it would have possibly undermined all physicians as untrustworthy, which could have ruined the patient-physician relationship. However, even though her ruling was very understandable, an important and very valuable theory should not have been over looked with a case as exceptional as this one, the Prima Facie Duty. W. D Ross explains when to consider this theory on page 23 that, â€Å" to provide a defensible account of â€Å"cases of conscience,† that is, situations that confront us with a conflict of duties. † Meaning when a person is uncertain and unsettled, but still must make a decision, but yet does not know which direction to go, you make a Prima Facie Duty. Ross then went on to explain that, â€Å"a Prima Facie Duty can be overridden by another Prima Facie Duty that in a particular set of circumstances is more stringent. With that being said, the duty of justice and the duty of beneficence can both be applied here because the Judge should have respected the parents’ religion and wishes, in their time of distress, to make their own personal decisions with their daughter by making other beings in the world conditions better. Also, the â€Å"it’s wrong to kill an innocent person† argument can be debated as well. Yes, I agree, it is wrong to kill a person to save another person, but there are exceptions, like what even makes a person, a person? Should Baby Theresa be considered a person? Research shows that all people have minds and all minds are capable of conscious mental activity, which Baby Theresa did not any thoughts or feelings, she was basically just breathing, so she should not have been considered as a person by these terms. Indeed, many infants could have benefitted from Baby Theresa’s organs, leading me to believe that the Utilitarianism theory was the correct approach to take for this case. In fact, when Jeremy Bentham created the Utilitarianism theory, he also made a point to focus on the consequences as much as the positive outcomes, which was called the Hedonistic Calculus. The Hedonistic Calculus is like a compare and contrast graph to weigh out the pleasures and pains of a situation because his main principle was, â€Å"act to promote the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest amount of people and less suffering to the less amount of people† and pleasure is the only value in the world based on the hedonism. With this in mind, if the parents were happy with making other families happy by giving their child organs for a good cause without technically harming or killing Baby Theresa, they ought to do so and that is what Ethics is all about, what you ought to do in a dilemma. Where as, on the other hand, by not allowing the organs to be donated for transplants, not only was the Judge dissatisfying Theresa parents wishes, she was possibly causing a larger chain reaction of disappointment and agony to the other families who would have been grateful and appreciative of Theresa organs, rather than allowing them to decay, causing pain to multiple parties. Ultimately, this case is a tricky one because I fully understand both the Kantian Theory plus the Utilitarianism and Consequentialist theory, but I see absolutely no benefits from overriding the parents’ beliefs and wishes of wanting to donate Theresa’s kidneys, liver, heart, lungs, and eyes because overall, many children could have tremendously benefitted from them.

Corporal Punishment: an Effective Tool in Child Discipline Essay

â€Å"For every action, there’s a reaction†, states Newton’s law of motion. This obvious truth doesn’t apply to just physics alone. It can also be applied to the human personality. When applying it to a child’s behavior, especially from a very early age, children need to be taught that their actions will have consequences. Being the sponges that they are, sometimes they absorb bad behaviors. Since they are inexperienced and need guidance throughout their life, there are different methods of discipline that can help correct their bad behaviors and actions. One way that is often effective is by explaining to the child why certain behaviors are not acceptable. But when a simple explanation isn’t enough, or when the child refuses to apply counsel, parents do have one last resort: corporal punishment. When parents do in fact use corporal punishment on their children, it normally is done after other forms of discipline have lacked effectiveness. For example, what if little Johnny has started hitting his young sister when she plays with his toys because he is not fond of sharing? We all know that sharing is one of the first principles that should be taught to children since it teaches them not to be selfish human beings. The first form of discipline that a parent might try is sitting down with little Johnny to explain to him that he needs to learn how to share and that hitting his sister is not appropriate. However, on a second occasion, Johnny hits his younger sister again for the same reason of not wanting to share. This time, the parent gives him a warning which results in Johnny remembering what was explained to him and stopping the wrong behavior, but with a pout. Once again, Johnny hits his sister for taking his toys, but instead of explaining or giving warnings, the parent now takes matters to the next level and decides to spank Johnny on his bottom. This third act of discipline, although still legal in all 50 of the United States, has been under much debate. The main argument that experts have as to why spanking should not be used is that it has negative psychological effects on children which can result in depression or even suicide. (Gershoff). Dr. Elizabeth Thompson Gershoff, PhD, of the National Center for Children in Poverty at Columbia University analyzed 62 years worth of data that looked into the â€Å"positive and negative behaviors in children that were associated with corporal punishment†. She defined corporal punishment as ‘physical force used with the intention to cause pain, but not injury, in order to correct or control a child’s behavior’, but this action turns into abuse when it is taken to the extent of â€Å"punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, yanking hair, twisting ears, and making a child stand in the same place for a long time, even if no injury results† (The Spanking Debate). In her study she found that the use of corporal punishment â€Å"increased child aggression and antisocial behavior†. But one main thing she pointed out about her findings is that the negative effects on the child were seen in association with the use of corporal punishment to the extent of physical abuse to the child (Gershoff). Dr. Gershoff herself admits that the results of her findings are not concrete evidence as to why corporal punishment should not be used because â€Å"they almost never record whether the punishment was deliberate or impulsive, or if it was a first resort or a last resort† (The Spanking Debate). This last admission about her own results shows how different discipline techniques gives different results. Corporal punishment that is administered lovingly should not be expected to provide the same results that abusive corporal punishment will obviously show. Most of the results taken from Dr. Gershoff’s study, although said to support the argument of how corporal punishment should not be used, lacks to explain the different results obtained if corporal punishment where administered in a loving way with the intent to guide children in the right direction and to help them develop the correct principles in order to become good citizens in today’s society. The fact that different parents administer corporal discipline at two completely different extremes is a major factor that needs to be more profoundly investigated. Although Dr. Gershoff’s analysis did contain both of those extremes, the results from the type of discipline used also gave different results. With these two variables being a part of Dr. Gershoff’s equation, it is argued that although severe forms of corporal unishment do exist, the positive effects of when it is correctly applied by means of a moderate and occasional spanking by parents who continuously convey their love for their child and explain the reasons for their actions, result in huge benefits for the child that overshadow the temporary pain that they may encounter because of the appropriately administered corporal punishment (The Spanking Debate). Robert Larzelere, a psychologist at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, reviewed 38 studies in relation to corporal punishment and came to the conclusion that when moderate and un-abusive spanking was administered, it reduced misbehavior in children without having the negative psychological effects that some psychologist claim that corporal punishment has. According to Larzelere, not only did that type of discipline work, â€Å"but it also reinforced milder forms of discipline, so that children are more apt to respond without spanking the next time† (Time). Edward Ledezma, who had been a single parent for about 7 to 8 years, recalls having to spank his daughter on two different occasions because his five year old daughter, Lilly, was continuously not listening to his instructions. That was the first and only time he had to use that type of discipline, and it was only after trying to explain to her first why she needed to listen to him. Now that she’s nine, there’s is no indication that she has psychological problems. On the contrary, she’s at the top of her forth grade class, is a well behaved girl, has he utmost respect for her dad, and loves him unconditionally. The loving corporal punishment that Edward had administered four years ago had served its purpose and he did not need to use it again. It shouldn’t be a surprise that such a debate on corporal punishment continues. On one side there are experts that say that abusive corporal punishment is wrong because of the negative psychological effects and who would doubt that it would. On the other hand, parents can reap the benefits with administering corporal discipline in a loving way. The argument should not be whether to administer corporal punishment but rather parents need to be taught that although it works, the only way they can sow the benefits from it is if they administer it within limits and only as a last resort.

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Resource,learning and talent mgt - Essay Example Graphic models, data and regression statistics support studies on leadership. Barker (2001) finds that management and leadership are two diverse topics. The statement by Barker shows that leadership and management cannot be used in an interchangeable manner because of their diverse nature. The differences between management and leadership show that it is difficult for an individual to become a good leader and manager at the same time. Organizations offer platforms for learning and developing effective management and leadership practices. An individual has the capabilities of navigating the two positions with the right knowledge and experience (Darr, 2011, p. 4). Leaders identify possible areas that require change and pursue them. These changes are facilitated by organizational theories of action that enable employees and followers to map their actions. Leadership begins with an individual’s choice to pursue and begin the process of change. Organizations, groups and teams requi re effective managers and leaders who can successfully run operations. Leaders and managers influence their employee’s job satisfaction and the operations of a learning organization. This means that leaders influence people’s actions and their abilities to map their actions in order to align with expected outcomes. ... e, Bill Gates assumes the state of both a leader and a manager though the two fields have different definitions, skill sets and behavioral consistency that contribute to effective leadership and management (Lesinski 2009 p. 45). For example, he motivates the workers by setting the vision of the organization, but also participates in providing operational guidelines as evident in the launch of various products within the company (Su-Chao, and Ming – Shing 2007 p. 156). Differences between Leadership and Management Leadership involves acting on possibilities that can influence an organization. This means that leaders see possibilities, describe the possibilities and plan to pursue the possibilities (Lain & Judy 2001 p. 21). For example, Sir Richard Branson of Virgin Atlantic has assumed the role of a leader by providing a vision that contributes to the growth of the company. This has improved his standing in the society because he seems to understand the needs of the company bey ond the management, and administrative roles (Carter 2013 p. 2). Conversely, management occurs as the act of coordinating efforts of people in order to accomplish objectives and goals. For example, the Manager at Bank of America seems to focus on goals stipulated by the administrative entities as well as the vision of stakeholders. He rarely acts on his own since the organization works as a system. Leadership begins with an individual who is willing to act as an agent of change. The main role of a leader is to envision a future and become an agent of change for the achievement of the future. Leadership starts with an individual’s choice to begin the processes of change. According to Dessler (2004), leadership, â€Å"is one person influencing another to willingly work towards a predetermined

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